Mayan Calendar

The Mayan Calendar can be traced back to ancient cultures in Central America around 2000 BCE. The calendar was further refined by the Mayan civilization, and some descendants of the Maya still use the calendar today. The Mayan calendar actually consists of 3 separate calendars. It is likely that the Mayan Tzolkin calendar was originally developed around the cultivation of corn, which was a major part of Mayan culture. Tzolkin comes from the Mayan words tzol, "to put in order" and kin, "day". The Tzolkin calendar aligned the Mayan growing season with the seasons of the Earth and the rains using their growing system, la milpa. The calendar was based on the number of digits on the hands and feet, 20, which is designated as a kal. 20 periods of 13 days, or 260 days, constituted one growing season, and thus the Tzolkin calendar was created. This calendar was also used to time religious and ceremonial events in Mayan culture.

The Maya later developed a solar calendar, based on the time it takes for the Earth to orbit the Sun, called the Haab. This 365 day calendar consists of eighteen 20-day months and a single 5-day month. Each month is associated with a particular personality trait. This calendar is exactly 365 days long, which causes problems when aligned with the Earth's 365.2422 day solar year. The familiar Mayan Long Count is used to track longer periods of time. This astronomical calendar consists of a 7885 year cycle, which the Maya believed marked the destruction of the universe and creation of a new one. These three calendars were used in conjunction to keep track of time in the Mayan civilization.

Sources: "The Origin of the Maya Calendar." Centro de Estudios del Mundo Maya. 2002. http://www.mayacalendar.com/mayacalendar/origen.html. Accessed 7 Mar 2018.

"How Does the Mayan Calendar Work?" 2018. https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/mayan.html. Accessed 7 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Haab_calendar

Julian Calendar

The Julian Calendar replaced the Roman Calendar in 45 BCE on the order of Julius Caesar. Caesar, frustrated with the inaccuracy of the Roman lunar calendar, called upon Sosigenes, an Alexandrian astronomer, to create a solar calendar, based on the Earth’s revolution around the Sun, about 365.242 days. The common year of the Julian calendar is 365 days divided into 12 months. Every fourth year is a leap year, with a leap day added to the last month of the year, Februarius. However, this is too often for leap years to occur, and even this more accurate calendar fell out of sync with the Earth’s solar orbit. This caused important holidays and religious events, such as Easter, to fall several days off of an equinox or solstice. Additionally, the first few decades of the Julian calendar were run under a calculation error, causing a leap year every third year, which only exasperated the problem. Despite these flaws, this calendar was still the most accurate measurement of time in the Roman empire and the Western world. Even when these errors were corrected by the Gregorian calendar, many orthodox churches still choose to continue using the Julian calendar even through to today.

Source: “The Julian Calendar” 2018. https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/julian-calendar.html. Accessed 7 Mar 2018.

Image: Wikipedia Commons, public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar

Ancient Egyptian Anatomical Studies

Leonardo made several extremely important discoveries that directly contradicted prevailing scientific beliefs of the time, such as the concept that the heart defined the circulatory system, and not the liver. However, such discoveries had been made many centuries previously by the Ancient Egyptians, whose forays into embalming the human body allowed them to recognize the presence and location of several major organs, including the heart, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, the uterus, the bladder, and even the hypothalamus as early as 1600 BC.

The Ebers Papyrus, published c. 1550 BC, contained a much more detailed treatise on the anatomy and location of the heart that also placed it at the center of the circulatory system. However, the Ancient Egyptians failed to realize the separation of the circulation of blood from the circulation of other fluids, and also credited vessels connecting to the heart with carrying substances like urine, semen, and tears.

Sources:
"History of Anatomy." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_anatomy. Accessed 8 Mar. 2018.

Image from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:EdSmPaPlateVIandVIIPrintsx.jpg

Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy was born in 100 AD and soon became one of the most influential Greek astronomers and geographers of his time. Ptolemy lived in Rome and studied under a mathematician known as Theon of Smyrna, who had written on astronomical observations such as conjunctions, eclipses, occultations, and transits. It is known that Theon did not have any depth of understanding of his observations, but his influences can be seen in the work of Ptolemy. It is argued that Ptolemy’s greatest work was a book titled “The Almagest”, and is considered a mathematical compilation. It is thought to be one of his earliest works and details the mathematical motions of the sun, the moon, and the planets. He made his most original contribution by detailing the motions of the celestial bodies in the universe. His goal was to continue the work given by those who came before him, not to prove or disprove any information he was previously taught. With this in mind he continued the work of Aristotle who stated that the Earth was the center of the universe and that the other celestial bodies orbit the Earth. Ptolemy used geometry to describe/predict the motion of other celestial bodies using eclipses. He introduces trigonometrical methods based on the chords method. His discoveries were widely accepted and prevailed for 1400 years.

Source: Robertson, E and O'Connor, J. "Ptolemy Biography." University of St. Andrews. April 1999. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Ptolemy.html. Accessed 15 Mar. 2018.

Image source: Wikipedia Commons, Public Domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PSM_V78_D326_Ptolemy.png

City of Alexandria

In 332 BCE, ~2,300 years ago, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and established the city of Alexandria on the port town of Rhakotis. Ptolemy, Alexander’s general, moved the capital of Egypt from Memphis to Alexandria where he entombed Alexander’s body after his death in 323 BCE. The city soon became a thriving city attracting many scientists, historians, philosophers, mathematicians, and artists becoming a hub of research and education with the foundation of the Ancient Library of Alexandria in 288 BCE. The Library would eventually house 700,000 scrolls including many autonomy and medical texts. The School of Alexandrian Medicine, established in the 3rd century BCE, would also teach many highly accredited physician who would go on to theorize and discover important works. These works would go on to have extensive influence and importance as credible medical references for over centuries. Alexandria experienced two major fires one in 48 BCE and one in 391 CE which burned down the surviving sections of the Ancient Library of Alexandria and the School of Alexandria Medicine. The two fires combined destroyed almost all of the medical and autonomy texts created in Egypt. The teachings of Alexandria continue to survive through physicians who studied at Alexandria before fire in 391 CE and went on to work in other countries. An example of this is Galen, a famous Roman physician, who studied at Alexandria. His works went on to have extensive influence on medicine during the Renaissance and Leonardo Da Vinci.

Sources:

Mark, Jashua. "Alexandria, Egypt". Ancient History Encyclopedia. 28 April, 2011.

Serageldin, Ismail. "Ancient Alexandria and the dawn of medical science". Global Cardiology Science & Practice, vol. 4, Dec. 30, 2013:395-404. DOI: PMC10.5339/gcsp.2013.47. March 7, 2018

Image:

A 19th century artistic drawing of the Library of Alexandria based off of archaeological evidence.

Artist: O. Von Corven

Source: Wikimedia Commons

*Please Note: The date on the timeline shows 332 CE, but the actual date is 332 BCE. The entry would not be accept the date of 332 BCE for the event date.

Settlement of the Venetian Lagoon

While many myths surround the first Venetians, most historians and archaeologists agree the lagoon and its islands were sparsely populated during the early Roman Empire with fisherman and duck hunters, likely trading with the cities of Aquileia, Altino, and Oderzo on the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea. San Francesco del Deserto, for example – an island in the northern lagoon shown by carbon dating to have first been inhabited in the 5^th century – shows evidence of a Roman port where goods from the Adriatic were received and transferred to these towns, several miles west. The populations of these islands, meanwhile, were rather small and likely not year-round.

Between the 4^th and 7^th centuries, Eastern, Germanic, and Central Asian tribes migrated through Europe and into the territory of the Roman Empire. The Empire, whose fall is often attributed in part to these "barbarians," was not capable of defending northeastern Italy from invasion. As a consequence, the people of the Roman cities in the northern Adriatic, fleeing violence and chaos as these tribes swept through the region, sought safety in the islands of the Venetian lagoon.

Early waves of this migration into the lagoon came with the Visigoths and the Huns, who each sacked the wealthy Roman trading city of Aquileia, the former on their way to Rome in 402, and the latter under the command of Atilla the Hun in 452. In each case, the city's inhabitants fled their attackers, adept horsemen unfamiliar with seamanship, for the sea.

Though these early ventures into the lagoon were somewhat tentative -- with many Aquileians returning to the mainland when the danger passed – large, permanent settlements came in the 6^th and 7^th centuries with the invasion of the Lombards, a Germanic tribe from Northern Europe that is believed to have offered their military services to the Byzantine Empire in exchange for land in Italy. The Lombards crossed the Alps in 568, conquered the remaining cities of Oderzo and Altino in 639, and established a kingdom that would last until the end of the 8^th century, leaving displaced mainland residents to become the first Venetians.

Sources:

Horodowich, Elizabeth. (Philadelphia). A Brief History of Venice. 2009: Running Press Book Publishers.

Image Source:

NASA Earth Observatory, via Wikimedia Commons

Establishment of the Doge in Venice

Since its beginning, Venice operated under the political auspices of Byzantium, the Eastern Roman Empire which persisted well after the fall of its Western counterpart in the 5^th century. Given the distance between the two cities, Venice was not ruled directly by the Emperor, but via a local administrative functionary called the Exarch of Ravenna, who oversaw all of the lands of Italy under Byzantine control, and through which Venetians maintained close economic and cultural ties with Byzantium. After a series of local governors called “maritime tribunes” in the 5^th century, the first doges were established as singular military rulers to reinforce Byzantium’s power over the Venetian lagoon and protect it against persistent regional threats. While evidence is not complete, the first of these doges – though not generally thought of as so in the history of the Republic of Venice – is believed to be Paoluccio Anafesto, who was elected in 697 and served under Byzantine orders.

Sources:

Horodowich, E. (Philadelphia). A Brief History of Venice. 2009: Running Press Book Publishers.

Image Source:

Pietro Marcello, via Wikimedia Commons

Defeat of the Franks

By the late 8^th century, the Lombards were increasingly defeated and supplanted by the Franks, the new prevailing barbarian group in the Europe, ruled by Charlemagne. Already established in Gaul and reckoning himself a new Western Roman Emperor, Charlemagne entered the Italian peninsula, conquered Lombard lands, and incorporated them into the largest territorial empire in Western Europe since the fall of Rome.in 476.

After excising remaining Lombard control over the surrounding coast in 774, Charlemagne declared himself lord of the Venetian lagoon. Venice, however, given its history and politics remained loyal to its ties to Byzantium and resisted Charlemagne’s rule.

Pepin, his son, then attempted to conquer Venice in 810. Though he was successful in taking the territory surrounding the lagoon, destroying Jesolo, Eraclea, and Grado to the east, Pepin was held off at Malamocco.

With their swift, flat-bottomed boats and knowledge of the shallow waters, the Venetians were able to thwart the attack, decimating the vessels of the Frankish fleet, which routinely ran aground. After six months of fighting and still unable to take the inner islands, Pepin accepted a Venetian offer of an annual tribute in exchange for the permanent removal of his forces.

This victory – in addition to a series of treaties with both the Franks and Constantinople between 812 and 840 – would become decisive moments in Venetian history, cementing the city-state’s political independence and growing power.

Sources:

Horodowich, E. (Philadelphia). A Brief History of Venice. 2009: Running Press Book Publishers.

FitzSimmons, A. K. (2013, December). The Political, Economic, and Military Decline of Venice Leading Up to 1797. University of North Texas. Retrieved March 2018, from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1650621354?pq-origsite=primo

Image Source:

Louis-Félix Amiel, via Wikimedia Commons

Creation of the Staff Notation and Guidonian Hand

In 1025, Guido D’Arezzo revolutionized musical notation by creating the four-lined staff, a primitive form of notation that eventually led to the development of the five-lined staff notation still used in modern music today. This development in musical notation was intended to make it easier for individuals to learn, understand, and memorize new compositions; it was also one of the first movements taken in the process of creating a universal standard for written music. In addition to the four-lined staff, Guido is also credited with constructing the Guidonian Hand (more commonly known as the “do-re-mi-fa” mnemonic system), another musical technique used to make the learning of music easier. With both methods, performers were able to associate sound with sight and become more familiar with pitch and mode.

Sources:

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Reisenweaver, Anna J. (2012) "Guido of Arezzo and His Influence on Music Learning," Musical Offerings: Vol. 3 : No. 1 , Article 4. DOI: 10.15385/jmo.2012.3.1.4 Available at: http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/4

Image Source: Oxford University, via Wikimedia Commons

St John’s Baptistry & the Gates of Paradise

One of the oldest buildings in the city, the Florence Baptistry served its titular religious function for notable Florentines including Dante Alighieri and the Medici Family. Besides its important religious role, the Baptistry was also seen as a pinnacle of Florentine art and architecture leading up to the Renaissance. Constructed between 1059 and 1128, the Baptistry exemplifies the Florentine Romanesque style with its façade of white and green marble, geometric panels, domed arches, and octagonal dome. The interior art includes byzantine mosaics depicting traditional religious themes such as the Last Judgement.

While representing art from multiple periods across its long life, the Baptistry is often touted as the birthplace of the Florentine Renaissance. This distinction is due to its three sets of bronze doors, particularly the north and east doors completed by Ghiberti between the years of 1401-1452. The artist was commissioned to design bonze panels for north doors after winning a competition against other notable artists including Brunelleschi and Donatello. After gaining acclaim for the realistic and emotion filled depictions of the New Testament scenes on these doors, the artist received a commission for the east doors, which were so magnificent they were dubbed “The Gates of Paradise” by Michelangelo and were later recognized as the foundation of Renaissance sculpture.

“Baptistry of San Giovanni.” Il Grande Museo Del Duomo, www.museumflorence.com/monuments/3-baptistry.

Levinson, Gilon. “ Florence, Baptistry: Colored Accents, Designer Doors.” Architecture Past Present & Future, 2009, www.architectureppf.com/chapter_6/Florence_Baptistry.aspx.

Image: By Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys) (taken by Ricardo André Frantz) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AFlorenca133b.jpg

Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims over the land of Palestine. During the time of the Crusades, the East was more advanced than Europe in terms of civilization. The knowledge gained by crusaders included new advancements in science that helped liberate the minds of Europe. The mental activity that resulted created the final intellectual outburst of the Renaissance. The Crusades also helped to establish Venice as a wealthy center for trade, which increased its power and reputation. The Crusades were a turning point for Europe, exposing them to new discovery and undermining feudalism.

Sources:

“The Crusades.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 2010, www.history.com/topics/crusades.

“Effects of the Crusades.” Lords and Ladies, www.lordsandladies.org/effects-of-crusades.htm.

Image Source: The Crusades, 1337. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades

Windmills in Medieval Europe

Windmills

Although windmills had already been in use in the Middle East for centuries, they were not introduced into Europe until sometime in the 13^th century. There is some debate as to whether or not this technology, like so many other late medieval innovations, was brought back from the Middle East as a result of the crusades. Windmills, like watermills were a vital part of everyday life, being used to pump water, to saw wood, and to grind grain. Especially this last use was incredibly important as it allowed those who did not live near a river to grind their grain far more efficiently, by saving them from grinding by hand, or having to transport the grain to a distant mill. While this innovation occurred before the Renaissance proper, and outside of Italy, it bore with it many similarities to renaissance innovations, such as a desire to utilize the knowledge of non-Christian cultures, as well as to create things of practical worldly use. Leonardo’s work with water power thus, was happening in an era full of innovations in the field of making nature work for mankind. 

Pelikan, Bob. "Windmills." National Driller 31, no. 2 (2010) 12, 14, 16.

Image created by Lourdes Cardenal , retrieved from Wikimedia Commons, Fair use

Rebirth of Human Dissection

There was a rebirth of human anatomical dissection during the middle ages. This occured for a couple of reasons. The first being there was a change in ideology around the body. The ideology shifted towards a belief that the human body and the human soul were two seperate things. So when a person died the soul had no connection to the body after death. This change eliminated the christian religious limitation which had been placed on dissection of humans. The second shift is an increased interest in medicine during this time period. Like during the renaissance there is a increased interest and increased scientific mindset during the end of the medieval period. This allowed for the increased desire to participate in medical endeavors. The third is a shift in ideology around how a cadaver should be handled. During the middle ages it was not uncommon for cadaveres to be dismembered. Nobles and kings even had there bodies  dismembered, saltered, or even boiled after death. This allowed for more access to bodies than had previously been available legally. Due to the resurgence of human dissection in the Middle Ages Leonardo Da Vinci was able to do extensive work with dissection of humans and animals throughout his lifetime. He would use the knowledge he gain during the autopsy for not just anatomical and physiological knowledge, but to more accurately paint human figures.

Source:

Prioreschi, P. “Determinants of the Revival of Dissection of the Human body in the Middle Ages.” Medical Hypotheses 2001.Vol 56 (2):229-234. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1054/mehy.2000.1183. Accessed March 8, 2018

Duccio's Madonna and Child with Two Angels

Duccio di Buoninsegna's rendition of the classic piece Madonna and child displays the changing paradigms of Byzantine and Renaissance art. Returning to the idea of anagogic space, Duccio makes use of the gold background and angels in the upper corners to maintain the Byzantine ideals of religion being set about the material world. However, he does drop the two-dimensional halos so often found in Byzantine artwork. The gold background does detract from the Renaissance ideals of realism and depth, but Duccio manages to encompass an emotion within the expression and movements of the woman and child that is rarely seen within Byzantine art. Their faces, extremely individualized as compared to previous style, represent a more affectionate relationship as one might see between a mother and child than can be seen in the traditional Madonna and Child which focuses more on religious symbology than on any form of realism. Duccio's combination of new and old ideals displays how he was painting in the midst of this shift in paradigms, and how often times changing art styles is an exceedingly long process which often has reversions to old practices and values. 

Sources:

Belting, Hans. “The ‘Byzantine’ Madonnas: New Facts about their Italian Origin and Some Observations on Duccio.” Studies in the History of Art 12 (1982): 7-22. JSTOR. Web. 25 Feb. 2018.

Stubblebine, James H. “Byzantine Influence in Thirteenth-Century Italian Panel Painting.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 20 (1966): 85–101. JSTOR. Web. 25 Feb. 2018.

Image Source:

Image courtesy of https://www.wga.hu/html_m/d/duccio/various/2crevole.html 

Construction of the Florence Cathedral

Santa Maria del Fiore, or the Florence Duomo, was constructed over the course of over 140 years under the supervision of multiple head architects. The cathedral was commissioned by the Florence city council in order to replace an ageing church dedicated to Saint Reparata. The initial designs of the cathedral were completed by Arnolfo di Cambio, however, after his death these plans were modified and enlarged. In 1366 final designs for the nave were finalized by a committee of artists and artisans. During this period, two factions formed: those in favor of a smaller, more conservative dome, and those in favor of a larger dome seen as "the more honorable" and "the more magnificent" option. This more daring plan was decided upon, ensuring Florence would have the largest and most magnificent church in Europe at the time. However, the size of the cathedral as well as its irregular octagonal knave posed a significant problem for the completion of the structure. While the main structure of the nave was completed by 1380, a solution to constructing a dome to top it was not determined until 1418.

“ Florence Cathedral in 1392.” On Architecture, Columbia University, www.learn.columbia.edu/ma/htm/sw/ma_sw_prim_flor_cath_1392.htm.

“Florence Cathedral.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral.

“Florence Cathedral.” Archinomy, www.archinomy.com/case-studies/946/florence-cathedral.

image courtesy of  http://www.travelingintuscany.com/engels/firenze/santamariadelfiore.htm

Humanism

Humanism is an ideology which increased in popularity during the Renaissance. The humanistic ideology developed from the increased interest in classical (greek, roman, and latin) texts during the late stages of the transition period between the medieval and renaissance periods. The ideology began in Florence, Italy and began to spread into the rest of Europe in the 16th century. The humanistic ideology places emphasis on “human dignity, beauty and potential” (New World Encyclopedia). This ideology places less emphasis on the church and more emphasis on the ability of an individual person. Humanism had vast influence on many aspects of renaissance culture. In music the compositions became more varied and had more movement. The compositions shifted away from a clerical sound to one more focused on entertainment. In art there was an increased placement of anagogic figures in non-anagogic space. There is also an increased value and importance shown to the human body with multiple detailed drawings being created from artists such as Leonardo Da Vinci. There is an increased emphasis on the beauty of a person which would have been considered humbiris in the past. There is also an increased presence of Roman and Greek architecture which not only a depiction of the interest in greek and roman classical scholars, but also a shift away from christian religion into the presence of a pagan religion in art. In philosophy and education there is an increase importance of truth, reason, and logic.

Source:

“Humanism.” New World Encyclopedia. Jan 19, 2018. Accessed March 8, 2018

The Council of Ten

Established in 1310 with the intent to preserve the peace and protect the people from abuses of power, the Council of Ten gained power throughout the early 14^th century, rapidly becoming a “chief force of justice” (FitzSimons).

The members of the Council of Ten – like the Doge, all the members of the Senate and courts, and other government officials – were elected by the Great Council. In addition to those members, the Signoria – which includes the three chiefs of the Quaranta Criminale court, the six Ducal Councilors, and the Doge – were present at all meetings.

Among its purposes, the Council worked to counter any actions or plots that may be taken or made against the Republic. The body’s small size facilitated this role, enabling it to make quick decisions in relative secrecy. In 1319, The Council established its own police force, the Capi di Sestiere, which along with two previous forces, patrolled the six political divisions of Venice, pursuing criminals and enemies of the state alike. As such, the Council of Ten, along with the courts and heavy taxes, played an important role in preventing popular rebellion and maintaining peace and order.

Sources:

FitzSimmons, A. K. (2013, December). The Political, Economic, and Military Decline of Venice Leading Up to 1797. University of North Texas. Retrieved March 2018, from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1650621354?pq-origsite=primo

Horodowich, E. (Philadelphia). A Brief History of Venice. 2009: Running Press Book Publishers.

Image:

Created based on the information provided by the source above.

Anathomia corporis humani, Mondino de Luzzi

Generally accepted as the first true anatomical dissection manual since Galen’s works in Ancient Greece, Mondino de Luzzi’s Anathomia corporis humani, completed in 1316, became widely distributed after its printing in Padua in 1478. Distinguishing himself from previous scholars who declared the study of anatomy unnecessary, De Lucci opens his work stating that human beings are superior to other animals, and therefore are worthy of study. Anathomia provides detailed sketches and of many major organs, such as the stomach, heart, lungs, and vascular system. It also offers insight into his dissection procedure. While in many cases De Lucci’s interpretations are inaccurate, like his description of the stomach as spherical, his work marked enormous progress in the study of the human form. Anathomia is considered a classic text, and for many centuries used as a reference for many training physicians, including those in the Renaissance.

Sources:

Miranda, Efrain A. “Mondino de Luzzi.” Medical Terminology Dictionary. Clinical Anatomy Associates, 24 Feb., 2014. Web. 15 Feb. 2018. Link

Image courtesy of Wikipedia, page on Mondino de Luzzi, titled Anathomia 1541. Image is public domain 

Milan Cathedral

The Milan Cathedral, or Duomo di Milano, is in Milan, Lombardy, Italy. Its construction began in 1386, but construction stopped from 1402 to 1480 due to lack of funding. When construction started up again, the largest obstacle delaying completion was the structural design of the tiburio, or crossing tower. Both Leonardo da Vinci and Donato Bramante, another Italian architect, were very involved in attempting to find a solution to this problem. Da Vinci’s design was not chosen by the architects to solve this stability problem. A cross vaulted ceiling was designed to support the tiburio, as well as the 135 spires that define the façade of the cathedral. Officially, the Milan Cathedral didn’t reach completion until 1965 because it was continuously added to over the course of six centuries.

Sources: “Milan Cathedral.” Wikipedia, 30 Jan. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Cathedral.

Bruschi, Arnaldo. “Donato Bramante.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2 May 2017, www.britannica.com/biography/Donato-Bramante#ref19909.

“Architecture Analysis Milan Cathedral.” Pah Nation, 2018, www.pahnation.com/architecture-analysis-milan-cathedral/.

Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan_Cathedral

Beginning of the Renaissance Era

The transition between the Medieval era into the Renaissance was marked by significant changes in philosophy, the most notable being the evolution from societal conformity to a focus on individualism and autonomy. This switch is reflected in the characteristics and style of Renaissance music; for instance, the increased use of solos within music. Typically, music was uniform; no performer stood out above the rest. In addition, Renaissance music is characterized by heavy embellishments, a conspicuous contrast to the Medieval era, in which music was created purely for religious purposes and therefore lacked any “unneeded elements.” The Renaissance style of music is reminiscent of society’s growing emphasis on the secular.

Sources:

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Tomlinson, Gary, and James Haar. Renaissance Humanism and Music. European Music, 1520-1640, Boydell & Brewer, Boydell Press, 2006, pp. 1–19.

Image Source: NGA, via Wikimedia Commons

The Dome of the Florence Cathedral

After the completion of the main structure of the cathedral in 1418, a design for the dome over the nave remained to be determined. According to Michael Raeburn "The construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral (was) one of the germinal events of Renaissance architecture...The problem had been posed in the middle of the fourteenth century when the definitive plan for the octagonal crossing had been laid down. The diameter of the dome at 39.5 metres (130 feet) precluded the traditional use of wooden structuring to support the construction of the vault, while the use of buttresses as in northern Gothic cathedrals was ruled out by the building's design." With these issues in mind, the head architect was selected by Florence’s Wool guild through a competition in which the prospective architects were purportedly tasked with balancing an egg upright on a slab of marble. Filippo Brunelleschi won the challenge, beating his rival Ghiberti, who had early beat him in the competition for the baptistry doors. In his design for the dome, Brunelleschi was able to innovatively solve the problem of spreading due to hoop stress through his us of the catenary arch and vertical ribbing, and also invented new machines for hoisting materials to the dome and was responsible for one of the first patents to protect his inventions. The dome was completed in 1436 and became a symbol of Florentine Innovation, described by Alberti as "A structure so immense, so steeply rising toward the sky, that it covers all Tuscans with its shadow".

“Florence Cathedral.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 28 Feb. 2018, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Cathedral.

“Florence Cathedral.” Archinomy, www.archinomy.com/case-studies/946/florence-cathedral.

Image courtesy of Wikimedia commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brunelleshi-and-Duomo-of-Florence.png {{PD}}

The Siege of Constantinople

Often considered the end of the Middle Ages, the fall of the Byzantine Empire marks a significant shift from the medieval to the renaissance. Constantinople was constructed to be an impenetrable fortress able to withstand any siege. However, the Ottoman Empire made effective use of gunpowder and artillery to destroy the indestructible. Even the might of Constantinople was overcome by the Ottoman "super cannon," the Dardanelles gun. Weighing 16.8 tons and measuring 27 feet in length, the Dardannelles gun was capable of delivering crippling damage at a range of 1.5 miles. The siege engineer behind such a destructive power, Orban, was contracted by Sultan Mehmet II to produce a weapon strong enough to end Constantinople. Orban is quoted as saying, "I can cast a cannon of bronze with the capacity of the stone you want. I have examined the walls of the city in great detail. I can shatter to dust not only these walls with the stones from my gun, but the very walls of Babylon itself." Though the Dardanelles Gun was very effective in destroying the walls of Constantinople, it required large teams of men to operate, and could only be fired seven times per day to prevent cracking. Still, the Ottomans, armed with their superior siege weaponry, were able to bring about an end to the Christian Roman Empire. The destruction wrought by such a machine could not be described better than by a soldier in charge of firing the gun, who said, "And when it had caught fire, faster than you can say it, there was first a terrifying roar and a violent shaking of the ground beneath and for a great distance around, and a din such as has never been heard. Then, with a monstrous thundering and an awful explosion and a flame that illuminated everything round about and scorched it, the wooden wad was forced out by the hot blast of dry air and propelled the stone ball powerfully out. Projected with incredible force and power, the stone struck the wall, which it immediately shook and demolished, and it was itself shattered into many fragments, and the pieces were hurled everywhere, dealing death to those standing nearby." 

Sources:

“The Guns of Constantinople.” HistoryNet, 13 Apr. 2016, www.historynet.com/the-guns-of-constantinople.htm.

Bunting, Tony. “Fall of Constantinople.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 5 Sept. 2017, www.britannica.com/event/Fall-of-Constantinople-1453.

Kamel, Marwan. “Ottoman Super Cannon: The bombard that built an empire.” All About History, www.historyanswers.co.uk/medieval-renaissance/ottoman-super-cannon-the-b....

Leonardo da Vinci and the Telescope

Telescope Design

Leonardo da Vinci’s contribution to astronomy is not as well known as his works in subjects such as art and architecture but, his astronomical findings do not go unnoticed. Most of da Vinci’s findings were later proved to be incorrect, but his curiosity would spark thought in many others after him. Leonardo’s immense intellectual curiosity and advanced power of observation would lend a hand to many of his astronomical findings but most importantly, his design of a telescope. His design of a possible telescope is not widely known so, the concept and design of the telescope is attributed to Galileo Galilei. Though Leonardo never built his device, it is evident that he explored the possibility and concept of it. The designs in his notebook describe the telescope as being able to “magnify the moon” and even wrote specifics about the dimensions and design, for example the thickness of the glass he would use to look through. Leonardo da Vinci had a great appreciation for the moon and was captured by its mystery, this is why he proposed the telescope, to discover more about the moon. His idea of the telescope is very interesting because he was beginning to push the boundaries of knowledge and start discovering the universe for himself. These were the ideas that were promoted by the Renaissance and would in turn, change the world.

Sources: Livio, Mario. "The Da Vinci Astronomy." Huffingtonpost. 6 Dec. 2017. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/mario-livio/the-da-vinci-astronomy_b_4065100.html. Accessed 27 Feb. 2018.

Image source: Huffington Post, Public Domain. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/mario-livio/the-da-vinci-astronomy_b_4065100.html

Verrocchio’s Orb

As designed by Brunelleschi, the lantern at the top of the Duomo was intended to be crowned by a large golden orb and cross. The job of creating and placing this orb was contracted to Verrocchio’s workshop in 1468, at which time Da Vinci would have been a teenager in his apprenticeship. The orb itself was constructed out of eight copper panels soldered together and leafed in gold. When finished, the piece measured eight feet in diameter and weighed over two tons. As an apprentice in Verrocchio’s workshop, Da Vinci had a hand in the creation and placement of the orb on top of the Duomo. While creating a piece of this size was itself a feat, the greatest challenge proved to be lifting the orb over 350ft to the top of the lantern. To do this, cranes and hoists designed by Filippo Brunelleschi for the construction of the cathedral’s dome were used to fix the ball in position in 1471. While it is not proven that Da Vinci had a hand in this project, many suspect he had a role as he mentions the solder used on the ball in his notes on parabolic mirrors (c. 1515) and included detailed sketches of Brunelleschi’s hoisting mechanisms in his Codex Atlanticus (c. 1570).

Nicholl, Charles. Leonardo Da Vinci: the Flights of the Mind. Penguin, 2007, erenow.com/biographies/leonardo-da-vinci-the-flights-of-the-mind/.

Image:

By sailko (Self-photographed) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons